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8/ $ \Ā ä )~ ō$ 8/ \Ā SPORTSCIENCEHYPERLINK "http://sportsci.org/" \t "_top"sportsci.orgReview / Training and PerformanceEffects of High-intensity Training on Performance and Physiology of Endurance Athletes
Carl D Paton, Will G Hopkins
Sportscience 8, 25-40, 2004 (sportsci.org/jour/04/cdp.htm)Centre for Sport and Exercise Science, The Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton; HYPERLINK "mailto:Carl.Paton=AT=wintec.ac.nz?subject=High-intensity%20training"Email. Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1020, New Zealand. Reviewers: Philo Saunders and David Pyne, Physiology, Australian Institute of Sport, PO Box 176, Belconnen, ACT 2616, Australia; Carl Foster, Exercise and Sport Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, Wisconsin 54601.
Most endurance athletes use high-intensity training to prepare for competitions. In this review we consider the effects of high-intensity interval and resistance training on endurance performance and related physiological measures of competitive endurance athletes. METHODS. There were 22 relevant training studies. We classified training as intervals (supramaximal, maximal, submaximal) and resistance (including explosive, plyometrics, and weights). We converted all effects on performance into percent changes in mean power and included effects on physiological measures that impact endurance performance. FINDINGS. All but one study was performed in non-competitive phases of the athletes programs, when there was otherwise little or no high-intensity training. Endurance performance of the shortest durations was enhanced most by supramaximal intervals (~4%) and explosive sport-specific resistance training (4-8%). Endurance performance of the longest durations was enhanced most by intervals of maximal and supramaximal intensities (~6%), but resistance training had smaller effects (~2%). Interval training achieved its effects through improvements of maximum oxygen consumption, anaerobic threshold, and economy, whereas resistance training had benefits mainly on economy. Effects of some forms of high-intensity training on performance or physiology were unclear. CONCLUSIONS. Addition of explosive resistance and high-intensity interval training to a generally low-intensity training program will produce substantial gains in performance. More research is needed to clarify the effects of the various forms of high-intensity training on endurance performance, to determine whether prescribing specific forms of resistance training can improve specific deficits of an endurance athlete's physiology, and to determine the effects of combining the various forms in periodized programs. KEYWORDS: aerobic, anaerobic threshold, economy, plyometrics, resistance, strength.
HYPERLINK "cdp.pdf" \t "_top"Reprint pdf · HYPERLINK "cdp.doc" \t "_top"Reprint doc · Commentaries by HYPERLINK "cf.htm" Foster and HYPERLINK "ps_dp.htm" Saunders and Pyne.
TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \t "Head2,2,Head1,1,Head3,3" HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919981" Introduction PAGEREF _Toc88919981 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919982" Methods PAGEREF _Toc88919982 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919983" Selection of Studies PAGEREF _Toc88919983 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919984" Analysis of Training PAGEREF _Toc88919984 \h 26
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919985" Analysis of Performance PAGEREF _Toc88919985 \h 28
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919986" Analysis of Physiological Effects PAGEREF _Toc88919986 \h 29
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919987" Findings PAGEREF _Toc88919987 \h 30
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919988" Endurance Performance PAGEREF _Toc88919988 \h 31
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919989" Maximum Incremental Power PAGEREF _Toc88919989 \h 31
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919990" Maximum Oxygen Consumption PAGEREF _Toc88919990 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919991" Anaerobic Threshold PAGEREF _Toc88919991 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919992" Economy PAGEREF _Toc88919992 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919993" Body Mass PAGEREF _Toc88919993 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919994" Conclusions and Training Implications PAGEREF _Toc88919994 \h 32
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919995" Further Research PAGEREF _Toc88919995 \h 33
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919996" References PAGEREF _Toc88919996 \h 33
HYPERLINK \l "_Toc88919997" Appendices PAGEREF _Toc88919997 \h 36
Introduction
Endurance in relation to athletic performance has been defined in various ways. In this article we have reviewed effects of high-intensity training not only on athletic endurance performance but also on underlying changes in the aerobic energy system. Endurance for our purposes therefore refers to sustained high-intensity events powered mainly by aerobic metabolism. Such events last ~30 s or more ADDIN EN.CITE Greenhaff19981180118Greenhaff, P.L.Timmons, J.A.1998Interaction between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during intense muscle contractionESSR261-30reviewspecificity, power systems(Greenhaff and Timmons, 1998).
Training for endurance athletes generally emphasizes participation in long-duration low- or moderate-intensity exercise during the base or preparation phase of the season, with the inclusion of shorter-duration high-intensity efforts as the competitive phase approaches. The effects of low- to moderate-intensity endurance training on aerobic fitness are well documented ADDIN EN.CITE Jones200086see for review086Jones, A.MCarter, H.C2000The effects of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitnessSM296373-386EnduranceTrainingAerobic(see Jones and Carter, 2000 for review), but reviews of high-intensity training on endurance performance have focused only on describing the effects of resistance training ADDIN EN.CITE Tanaka199888088Tanaka, H.Swensen, T.1998Impact of resistance training on endurance performance: a new form of cross training?SM253191-200EnduranceTrainingPerformance(Tanaka and Swensen, 1998), the effects of resistance training with runners ADDIN EN.CITE Jung200314014Jung, A.P.2003The impact of resistance training on distance running performance.Sports Medicine33539-52(Jung, 2003), and the different types of interval training used by athletes ADDIN EN.CITE Billat20011150115Billat, V.2001Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Part1: Aerobic interval training.Sports Medicine31113-31TrainingEnduranceRunning(Billat, 2001a) and studied by researchers ADDIN EN.CITE Billat20011160116Billat, V.2001Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Part 2: Anaerobic interval training.Sports Medicine31275-90Trainingendurancerunning(Billat, 2001b). Furthermore, previous reviews have included the effects of high-intensity training on untrained or recreationally active subjects, so findings may not be applicable to competitive athletes. The purpose of this review was therefore to describe the effects of high-intensity training on performance and relevant physiological characteristics of endurance athletes.
Methods
Selection of Studies
We identified most relevant publications through previous reviews and our own reference collections. We found 22 original-research peer-reviewed articles that identified competitive endurance athletes as the subjects in a study of effects of high-intensity training on performance or related physiology. We excluded studies of recreationally active subjects or of subjects whose characteristics were not consistent with those of competitive athletes, including Daniels et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Daniels19781100110Daniels, J.T.Yarbrough, R.A.Foster, C.1978Changes in VO2max and running performance with trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology39249-254trainingendurancerunners(1978), Hickson et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hickson1988707Hickson, R CDvorak, B AGorostiaga, E MKurowski, T TFoster, C1988Potential for strength and endurance training to amplify endurance performanceJAP652285-2290exptspecificity, strength, endurance, perf(1988), Tabata et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Tabata19961080108Tabata, I.Nishimura, K.Kouzaki, Y.H.Ogita, F.Miyachi, M.Yamamoto, K.1996Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2 MaxMSSE28101327-1330trainingendurancecycling(1996), Franch et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Franch19981120112Franch, J.Madsen, K.Mogens, S.D.Pedersen, P.K.1998Improved running economy following intensified training correlates with reduced ventilatory demandsmsse3081250-1256trainingendurancerunners(1998), and Norris and Petersen ADDIN EN.CITE Norris19981110111Norris, S.R.Petersen, S.R.1998Effects of endurance training on transient oxygen uptake responses in cyclistsJournal of Sports Sciences16733-738trainingendurancecyclists(1998). We did not perform a systematic search of SportDiscus or Medline databases for theses or for non-English articles, and we did not include data from chapters in books.
Analysis of Training
We assigned the training to two categories:
Resistance training: sets of explosive sport-specific movements against added resistance, usual or traditional weight training (slow repeated movements of weights), explosive weight training, or plyometrics and other explosive movements resisted only by body mass ( HYPERLINK \l "Table1" Table 1).
Interval training: single or repeated intervals of sport-specific exercise with no additional resistance ( HYPERLINK \l "Table2" Table 2).
Classification of some resistance-training studies was difficult, owing to the mix of exercises or lack of detail. In particular, all the studies we classified under explosive sport-specific resisted movements probably included some non-explosive resisted movements and some plyometrics.
We classified the duration and intensity of intervals in Table 2 as follows: supramaximal (<2 min), maximal (2-10 min) and submaximal (>10 min), where "maximal" refers to the intensity corresponding to maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max). The supramaximal intervals will have been performed at or near all-out effort; the maximal intervals will have started at less than maximum effort, but effort will have approached maximum by the end of each interval; the submaximal intervals can be considered as being close to anaerobic threshold pace (a pace that can be sustained for ~45 min), and effort will have risen to near maximum by the end of each interval.
Table 1: Experimental and control training in studies of the effects of high-intensity resistance training on endurance performance in competitive athletes. StudyExperimental trainingControl trainingaExplosive sport-specific resisted movementsHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff1999808Hoff, J.Helgerud, J.Wisloff, U.1999Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31870-7http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.99305260(1999)Skiing-specific, 3x 6RM, 7%; general strength, 2%; endurance, 70%; total 8.5 h.wk-1Endurance, 72%; general strength, 13%; total 9.2 h.wk-1 in basic preparation phaseHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Skiing-specific, 3x 6RM, 7.5%, plus endurance; total 9.6 h.wk-1Mainly endurance with strength endurance; total 10.1 h.wk-1 in pre-season phaseOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)Skiing-specific, 3x 6RM, 5% of total of 15 h.wk-1Endurance + strength-endurance weights, total 15 h.wk-1 in pre-competition phasePaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199120020Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Rusko, H.1991Effects of explosive type strength training on physical performance characteristics in cross-country skiers.Eur J Appl Physiol62251-5(1991)Skiing-specific, 34-42%; endurance, 66-58%; total 6-9 sessions wk-1 in base preparation phase Endurance running & roller skiing (83%) + strength-endurance weights (17%); total 6-9 sessions wk-1 in base preparation phasePaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Running-specific, 32%; endurance and circuit, 68%; 2-3 session.wk-1; total 9.2 h.wk-1Endurance running and circuit, 97%; running-specific explosive strength, 3%; total 9.2 h.wk-1 in post-competition phaseSport-specific resisted movementsToussaint and Vervoorn ADDIN EN.CITE Toussaint19901000100Toussaint, H.M.Vervoorn, K.1990Effects of high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmersInt J Sports Med11228-233trainingcompetitiveendurance(1990)Swimming sprints against resistance for 30 min, 3 wk-1 for 10 wk in competition phase, plus usual (?) swim trainingSame as experimental group but without additional resistance during sprint training Explosive non-sport-specific weight trainingBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)4x sets of 30 reps each of squats, leg presses, single-leg step ups for 3.3 h.wk-1, plus 5.5 h.wk-1 of control endurance cycling8.9 h.wk-1 endurance cycling in pre-competition phasePlyometricsSpurrs et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Spurrs200383083Spurrs, R.W.Murphy, A.J.Watsford, M.L.2003The effect of plyometric training on distance running performanceEur J Appl Physiol891-7PLyometricsrunning(2003)2x 10 reps of 3-4 jumps, bounding and hops, plus 60-80 km. wk-1 endurance running60-80 km. wk-1 endurance running; training phase not statedTurner et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Turner200382082Turner, A.M.Owimngs, M.Schwane, J.A.2003Improvements in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric trainingJSCR17160-67economyrunningplyometrics(2003)6 sets of jumps, 3 wk-1 for 6 wk, plus usual low-intensity endurance runningMinimum 3 sessions and 16 km.wk-1 running; unspecified intensity and training phaseUsual weight trainingBishop et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(1999)3-5 sets of 2-8RM squats, plus usual endurance cyclingEndurance cycling in off-season, unspecified weekly durationJohnston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Johnston199713013Johnston, R EQuinn, T JKertzer, RVroman, N B1997Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economyJSCR11224-229(1997)2-3 sets of 6-20RM, plus 32-48 km.wk-1 endurance running 32-48 km.wk-1 endurance running in pre-competition phaseMillet et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Millet20021210121Millet, G PJaouen, BBorrani, FCandau, R2002Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO2 kineticsMSSE341351-1359" (2002)3-5 sets of 3-5RM of 6 lower-limb exercises, 2 wk-1 for 14 wk, plus control endurance training20 h.wk-1 endurance running, cycling, swimming at <70 %VO2max in winter non-competition phaseRM, repetitions maximum.
a"Endurance training" is presumably long sessions below submaximal intensity (below anaerobic threshold).A major concern with all but one of the studies we reviewed is that the high-intensity training interventions were performed in the non-competitive phases of the athletes season, when there was otherwise little or no intense training. Authors who have monitored endurance athletes throughout a season have reported substantial improvements in performance and changes in related physiological measures as athletes progress from the base training to competitive phases ADDIN EN.CITE Barbeau199327027Barbeau, P.Serresse, O.Boulay, M.R.1993Using maximal and submaximal aerobic variables to monitor elite cyclists during a seasonMSSE251062-1069longcycle, economy, trainLucia200093093Lucia, A.Hoyos, J.Perez, M.Chicharro, J.2000Heart rate and performance parameters in elite cyclists: A longitudinal studymsse32101777-1782EndurancecyclingtrainingGaly200394094Galy, O.Manetta, J.Coste, O.Maimoun, L.Chamari, K.Hue, O.2003Maximal oxygen uptake and power of lower limbs during a competitive season in triathletesScandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports13185-193(Barbeau et al., 1993; Lucia et al., 2000; Galy et al., 2003). Indeed, our own unpublished observations show that well-trained cyclists ordinarily make improvements in power output of ~8% in laboratory time trials as they progress from base through competitive phases of their season. The large improvement in performance as the competitive phase approaches occurs because athletes normally include higher intensity endurance training as part of a periodized program. It therefore seems unlikely that the large improvements reported in studies performed during a non-competitive phase would be of the same magnitude if the studies were performed in the competitive phase, when the athletes ordinarily include higher intensity training in their program. Indeed, in the only training study we could find performed during the competitive phase of a season, Toussaint and Vervoorn ADDIN EN.CITE Toussaint19901000100Toussaint, H.M.Vervoorn, K.1990Effects of high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmersInt J Sports Med11228-233trainingcompetitiveendurance(1990) found that 10 weeks of sport-specific resistance training improved race performance time in national level competitive swimmers by ~1%. Though such improvements appear small, they are important for elite swimmers ADDIN EN.CITE Pyne20041190119Pyne, DTrewin, CHopkins, W2004Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmersJ Sports Sci22613-20(Pyne et al., 2004), and the estimated change in power of ~3% is certainly greater than the ~0.5% that is considered important in other high-level sports ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins199936036Hopkins, W GHawley, J ABurke, L M1999Design and analysis of research on sport performance enhancementMSSE31472-485reviewperf, stats, rely(Hopkins et al., 1999).
Table 2: Experimental and control training in studies of the effects of high-intensity interval training on endurance performance in competitive athletes. StudyExperimental trainingPrior and/or control trainingaSubmaximal intervalsSjodin et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(1982)Running at anaerobic threshold, 1x 20 min, 1 session.wk-1 for 14 wk, plus usual trainingNo control; usual winter training, ~6.5 h.wk-1Maximal intervalsAcevedo and Goldfarb ADDIN EN.CITE Acevedo19891070107Acevedo, E.O.Goldfarb, A.H.1989Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold and endurancemsse215563-568Trainingrunnersendurance(1989)Running, ?x ? min, 1 session.wk-1, plus Fartlek (presumably mainly max) sessions (8-19 km, 2 session.wk-1 for 8 wkNo control; endurance training runs (8-19km) for 3-4 session.wk-1Billat et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Billat19991060106Billat, V.L.Flechet, B.Petit, B.Muriaux, G.Koralsztein, JP.1999Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markersMSSE311156-163Trainingrunnersendurance(1999)bRunning, 5x 3 min, 1 session.wk-1, plus 2x 20 min (submax), 1 session.wk-1 replacing usual trainingNo control; low-intensity base phase training, unspecified weekly durationLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling, 8x 2.4 min with 4.8-min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1, plus usual training?~10 h.wk-1 of endurance training in off and pre-competition phasesCycling, 8x 2.4 min with 2- to 3-min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1, plus usual training?Lindsay et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Lindsay199699099Lindsay, F.H.Hawley, J.A.Myburgh, K,H.Helgo, S.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.C.1996Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training.msse28111427-1434Interval trainingPerformancecyclists(1996)Cycling, 6-8x 5 min with 1 min recoveries, 1-2 session.wk-1 replacing ~15% of usual trainingNo control; usual base-phase endurance training, ~300km.wk-1Smith et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Smith19991010101Smith, T.P.McNaughton, L.R.Marshall, K,J.1999Effects of 4-wk training using Vmax/Tmax on VO2max and performance in athletesMSSE316892-896TrainingAthletes(1999)Running, 5-6x 2-3 min, 2 session.wk-1 for 4 wk plus 1x 30 min.wk-1 at 60% of VO2maxNo control; prior training unclearStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)cCycling, 4x 8 min, 8x 4 min, or 12x 2 min with 1- to 3-min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1, plus usual trainingNo control; usual endurance training, unspecified training phase, 230 km.wk1Westgarth-Taylor et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Westgarth-Taylor19971030103Westgarth-Taylor, C.Hawley, J.A.Rickard, S.Myburgh, K.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.D.1997Metabolic and performance adaptations to interval training in endurance-trained cyclistsEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology75298-304Cyclingtraining endurance(1997)Cycling, 6-9x 5 min with 1 min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1 replacing 15% of usual trainingNo control; usual base-phase endurance training, unspecified weekly durationWeston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Weston19971020102Weston, A.R.Myburgh, K.H.Lindsay, F.H.Dennis, S.C.Noakes, T.D.Hawley, J.A.1997Skeletal muscle buffering capacity and endurance performance after high-intensity interval training by well-trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied Physiology757-13cyclingtrainingendurance(1997)Cycling, 6-8x 5 min with 1 min recoveries, 1-2 session.wk-1 replacing 5% of usual trainingNo control; usual base-phase endurance training, ~290 km.wk-1Supramaximal intervalsCreer et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Creer2004606Creer, A RRicard, M DConlee, R KHoyt, G LParcell, A C2004Neural, metabolic, and performance adaptations to four weeks of high intensity sprint-interval training in trained cyclistsIJSM2592-98(2004)Cycling, 4-10x 30-s, 2 session.wk-1 for 4 wk plus 5 h.wk-1 endurance training8 h.wk-1 endurance trainingLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(2002a)Cycling, 12-19x 1 min, 2 session.wk1 plus 8 h.wk-1 base trainingLow intensity in base phase, ~10 h.wk-1Laursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling, 12x 30 s with 4.5-min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1 plus usual training?~10 h.wk-1 of endurance training in off and pre-competition phasesStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)bCycling, 12x 30 s with 4.5-min recoveries or 12x 1 min with 4-min recoveries, 2 session.wk-1 plus usual trainingNo control; usual endurance training, unspecified training phase, 230 km.wk1a"Endurance" training is presumably long sessions below submaximal intensity (below anaerobic threshold).
bShown in Appendices 2-4 as submax and max intervals.
cThe five training groups in this study were merged into two groups for this review.Analysis of Performance
Measures of performance in real or staged competitions are best for evaluating the effects of training interventions on competitive athletes ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins199936036Hopkins, W GHawley, J ABurke, L M1999Design and analysis of research on sport performance enhancementMSSE31472-485reviewperf, stats, rely(Hopkins et al., 1999). Toussaint et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Toussaint19901000100Toussaint, H.M.Vervoorn, K.1990Effects of high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmersInt J Sports Med11228-233trainingcompetitiveendurance(1990) were the only researchers to use competitive performance in a study of high-intensity training. The others have opted instead for laboratory-based ergometer tests or solo field tests, which may not reproduce the motivating effect of competition. HYPERLINK \l "Append1" Appendix 1 summarizes the effects from sport-specific time trials and constant-power tests, sorted into the same three intensity/duration categories as the interval training. HYPERLINK \l "Append2" Appendix 2 summarizes the effects on maximum power in incremental tests. To permit comparison of effects, we have converted outcomes in the various performance tests into percent changes in mean or maximum power, using the methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001). HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Footnotes in the appendices indicate which measures needed conversion.
Analysis of Physiological Effects
The remaining tables show the effects of high-intensity training on physiological measures related to endurance performance: maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max, HYPERLINK \l "Append3" Appendix 3), anaerobic threshold, exercise economy ( HYPERLINK \l "Append4" Appendix 4), and body mass ( HYPERLINK \l "Append5" Appendix 5). Most endurance events are performed at a nearly constant pace, and for those performed at an intensity below VO2max mean performance power or speed is the product of VO2max, the fraction of VO2max sustained, and aerobic energy economy ADDIN EN.CITE di Prampero198698098di Prampero, P.E.1986The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in waterIJSM755-72revieweconomy, run, swim(di Prampero, 1986). Provided they can be measured with sufficient precision, percent changes in each of these components are therefore worth documenting, because they translate directly into percent changes in endurance power. Of course, training is likely to change more than one of these components, so researchers serious about identifying the mechanism of a change in performance should assess all three.
Most authors of the studies we reviewed measured VO2max, usually in an incremental test. Some also measured economy (work done per liter of oxygen consumed) from VO2 measurement either in middle stages of the incremental test or at a fixed work rate in a separate test. Where necessary, we re-expressed percent changes in VO2max and economy for VO2 measured in units of L.min-1, to avoid difficulties in interpretation arising from changes in mass when VO2 is expressed as ml.min-1.kg-1.
No authors measured the fraction of VO2max sustained in the endurance test itself (requiring measurement of VO2 throughout the test), but some measured the anaerobic threshold, usually from an analysis of blood lactate concentration during an incremental test. Depending in its method of measurement, the anaerobic threshold occurs at ~85% of VO2max, an intensity that an athlete can sustain for ~30-60 min ADDIN EN.CITE Jones200086086Jones, A.MCarter, H.C2000The effects of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitnessSM296373-386EnduranceTrainingAerobic(Jones and Carter, 2000). One can therefore assume that percent changes in the anaerobic threshold will translate directly into percent changes in fractional utilization of VO2max in a sub-VO2maximal event. Authors in two studies provided the anaerobic threshold as a power rather than a percent of VO2max; in this form the measure is effectively already a nett measure of submaximal endurance performance, with contributions from VO2max, fractional utilization of VO2max, and economy. We therefore included these measures in HYPERLINK \l "Append1" Appendix 1 in the subgroup of submaximal tests.
The relevance of changes in anaerobic threshold to changes in endurance performance at maximal and supramaximal intensities is unclear, but for such events (lasting up to ~10 min) anaerobic capacity makes a substantial contribution to performance ADDIN EN.CITE Greenhaff19981180118Greenhaff, P.L.Timmons, J.A.1998Interaction between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during intense muscle contractionESSR261-30reviewspecificity, power systems(Greenhaff and Timmons, 1998). None of the studies we reviewed included critical-power or other modeling of performance to estimate the contribution of changes in anaerobic capacity resulting from high-intensity training. However, a practical and much more reliable measure of anaerobic capacity is performance in sprints lasting ~30 s, which we have included as supramaximal tests in HYPERLINK \l "Append1cont"Appendix 1.
Body mass is an important determinant of performance in running [Berg, 2003 #120] and presumably in most other high-intensity endurance sports, depending amongst other things on the distribution of the change in mass between the active limbs and the rest of the body, the power required to continually accelerate and decelerate the limbs, and the power required to move the rest of the body against gravity with each cycle of limb movement and over any undulating terrain or hills. The relationship between changes in body mass and performance is therefore difficult to predict, but it has not been studied empirically for any sport. We have nevertheless included in HYPERLINK \l "Append5" Appendix 5 the percent changes in body mass from those studies where mass was reported before and after resistance training, because this form of training could increase body mass substantially by increasing muscle mass. None of the studies of interval training provided enough data to estimate changes in body mass, presumably because there were either no substantial changes or the authors did not consider changes in body mass to be an issue with this kind of training.
Findings
The outcomes from individual studies are shown in HYPERLINK \l "Append1" Appendices 1-5, at the end of this article. Table 3 represents a summary derived from the appendices and justified in the following sections.
Table 3: Summary of effects of high-intensity interval and resistance training on performance and physiology of endurance athletes in a non-competitive (low intensity) phase of training.Interval trainingResistance trainingaSub-maximalMaximalSupra-maximalExplosive sport-specificExplosive non-sport specificPlyo-metricsUsual weightsPerformance powerSubmaximal endurance+++++++++/Maximal endurance++++Supramaximal endurance0++++++++Maximum incremental++++++++0PhysiologyMaximum oxygen uptake+++++/Anaerobic threshold++++++/0Economy++++++++++++++Body mass++0+Key to effects: ++++, 8% or more; +++, 6% (5 to 7%); ++, 4% (3 to 5%); +, 2% (1 to 3%); 0, 0% (-1 to 1%); , -2% (-1 to -3%).
aThe study by Toussaint and Vervoorn ADDIN EN.CITE Toussaint19901000100Toussaint, H.M.Vervoorn, K.1990Effects of high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmersInt J Sports Med11228-233trainingcompetitiveendurance(1990) of effects of non-explosive resisted movements on swimmers in the competitive phase of training is not included in this summary.Our interpretation of the appendices was cautious and tentative, because the various kinds of performance and physiological tests are disproportionately represented by the different kinds of training. For example, there has been only one study of purely submaximal interval training, and it did not include a measure of performance power or maximal power in an incremental test ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(Sjodin et al., 1982). Further, a submaximal performance test was generally included in studies of interval training but not in studies of resistance training, whereas tests of economy are more likely to have been included in studies of resistance training. The reasons for such bias in the use or reporting of tests are unclear. Authors might have been more likely to include a test or measure that had already been shown to produce a big change. Also, some authors may have chosen not to report non-significant effects, or they may have been instructed to remove them from the manuscript by a misguided reviewer or editor. A formal quantitative meta-analysis can partially improve the interpretation when there are such biases, but we decided against a meta-analysis when we discovered that all but one of the published studies were performed with athletes in the base phase of training. A meta-analysis would not address the real issue for athletes: how does each kind of high-intensity training contribute to performance against a background of other high-intensity training? This review can provide only suggestive evidence.
Endurance Performance
HYPERLINK \l "Append1" Appendix 1 shows that maximal and supramaximal intervals produced equally impressive gains (3.0-8.3%) on performance at submaximal intensities. The magnitude of the largest improvement ADDIN EN.CITE Westgarth-Taylor19971030103Westgarth-Taylor, C.Hawley, J.A.Rickard, S.Myburgh, K.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.D.1997Metabolic and performance adaptations to interval training in endurance-trained cyclistsEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology75298-304Cyclingtraining endurance(Westgarth-Taylor et al., 1997) is likely to be due to either sampling variation or a computational error, because it is not consistent with the smaller gains (4.6 and 8.3%) in two similar studies by the same group ADDIN EN.CITE Lindsay199699099Lindsay, F.H.Hawley, J.A.Myburgh, K,H.Helgo, S.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.C.1996Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training.msse28111427-1434Interval trainingPerformancecyclistsWeston19971020102Weston, A.R.Myburgh, K.H.Lindsay, F.H.Dennis, S.C.Noakes, T.D.Hawley, J.A.1997Skeletal muscle buffering capacity and endurance performance after high-intensity interval training by well-trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied Physiology757-13cyclingtrainingendurance(Lindsay et al., 1996; Weston et al., 1997). Explosive resistance training was less effective (0.3 and 1.0%) over the same time frame as the interval training studies (~4 wk), and even after 9 wk the gains were still not as great (2.9 and 4.0%) as with interval training. In the only study of the effect of usual weight training on submaximal endurance, there were opposing effects on anaerobic threshold power (2.6%) and time-trial power (1.8%) in the same subjects after 12 wk. The authors suggested that the non-specific movement and speed of the weight training accounted for its failure to enhance time-trial performance ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(Bishop et al., 1999).
Explosive sport-specific movements produced the greatest gains in maximal endurance tests (1.9-5.2%) after 8-9 wk ( HYPERLINK \l "Append1" Appendix 1). Maximum intervals were less effective (2.8%), although the duration of training was only 4 wk. Plyometric jumps were less beneficial (1.2%).
Not surprisingly, the highest-intensity training produced the greatest enhancements in the supramaximal tests ( HYPERLINK \l "Append1cont" Appendix 1). The very large gain with explosive weights (11%) was more than twice that with supramaximal intervals and explosive sport-specific resistance (3.0-4.6%). Maximal intervals had little effect (0.4%).
There was only one study of the effects of submaximal intervals ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(Sjodin et al., 1982), and it did not include measures of performance power. The effects on VO2max, anaerobic threshold, and economy in that study, if they were additive, would be consistent with ~6% enhancement of submaximal endurance and possibly 2-4% on supramaximal and maximal endurance respectively.
Maximum Incremental Power
Maximum-intensity intervals appear to be the most effective form of high-intensity training for improving maximum incremental power (by 2.5-7.0%; HYPERLINK \l "Append2" Appendix 2). Gains appear to be smaller with explosive sport-specific resistance training (2.3% and 6.0%) and supramaximal intervals (1.0-4.7%), and possibly smaller still with explosive weights (2.0%). Remarkably, a gain of 4.7% was achieved in only four sessions of supramaximal intervals ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(Laursen et al., 2002a).
These improvements will transfer to time-trial performance to some extent, because maximum power achieved in an incremental test correlates well with time-trial performance ADDIN EN.CITE Noakes199089089Noakes, T.D.Myburgh, K.H.Schall, R.1990Peak treadmill running velocity during the VO2max test predicts running performance.Journal of Sports Sciences835-45runningendurancepeakperformanceHawley199232032Hawley, J.A.Noakes, T.D.1992Peak power output predicts maximal oxygen uptake and performance time in trained cyclistsEJAP6579-83desccycling, VO2max, peak powerBourdin200490090Bourdin,M.Messonnier, L.Hager, J.P.Lacour, J.R2004Peak power output predicts rowing ergometer performance in elite rowers.Int J Sports Med25368-373peakendurance performancerowers(Noakes et al., 1990; Hawley and Noakes, 1992; Bourdin et al., 2004). Exactly how they will transfer might depend on the duration of the time trial. Most of an incremental test is performed at submaximal intensities, but the last minute or two is maximal and supramaximal. Performance in the test will therefore be determined by a mix of VO2max, anaerobic threshold, economy, and anaerobic capacity. If the mix does not reproduce that of the time trial, enhancements of one or more components of the mix will produce changes in maximum incremental power that differ from those in time-trial performance.
Maximum Oxygen Consumption
It is evident from HYPERLINK \l "Append3" Appendix 3 that the largest improvements in VO2max occurred with maximal-intensity interval training (gains of 2.3-7.1%). Supramaximal intervals were probably less effective (impairment of 0.6% in one study, enhancements of 2.2% and 3.5% in two others). The changes can occur rapidly: Laursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(2002a) recorded an increase of 3.5% after a total of only four supramaximal sessions in two weeks. Explosive weight training can produce smaller gains (up to 2.0%), but the various forms of resistance training had a predominantly negative effect on VO2max. Improvements in other physiological measures can offset this effect and result in nett improvements in endurance performance following resistance training.
Anaerobic Threshold
One cannot draw a firm conclusion about the effect of explosive resistance training on the anaerobic threshold in HYPERLINK \l "Append4" Appendix 4, given that there were major enhancements in three studies (5.0-7.1%) and substantial impairments in two others (2.0 and 2.1%). In the only study of presumably maximal intervals, the gain was ~5.0%, whereas the gain was less (1.5%) in the only study of submaximal intervals.
Economy
Although the claim of 39% increase in economy from explosive sport-specific resistance training in HYPERLINK \l "Append4" Appendix 4 is almost certainly erroneous, it is clear from the other studies in the table that explosive resistance training in general produced spectacular beneficial effects (3.5-18%) on this endurance parameter. Plyometrics may be only a little less effective (3.1-8.6%). The effects of interval training were least for submaximal (2.8%) and greater for a mixture of submaximal and maximal (6.5%).
Body Mass
It is reasonably clear from HYPERLINK \l "Append5" Appendix 5 that explosive resistance training increased body mass by ~1%, presumably via an increase in muscle mass. Any direct harmful effects of this increase in mass on performance were inconsequential, given the large enhancements that this form of training produced in power output of all durations. Usual weight training may produce increases in body mass that are greater (2.8% in one study) and therefore more likely to impair performance in some sports.
Conclusions and Training Implications
High-intensity interval and resistance training in an endurance athletes non-competitive phase can substantially improve performance and related physiological measures. Interval training at intensities around VO2max (intervals lasting 2-10 min) improves mainly submaximal endurance performance (by ~6%) through improvements of all three components of the aerobic system (VO2max, anaerobic threshold, economy). Effects of longer intervals at lower intensity have unclear but possibly similar effects on performance, judging by their effects on the components of the aerobic system. Higher intensities of interval training (intervals of <2 min) probably have similar benefit for submaximal endurance and possibly less benefit (~4%) for shorter durations of endurance performance, but the contribution of aerobic components is unclear. Explosive resistance training produces some benefit (~2%) for submaximal endurance, but probably more benefit (4-8%) for maximal and supramaximal endurance. The effects of explosive resistance training are mediated at least partly by major increases in economy, possibly by increases in anaerobic threshold, but probably not by increases in VO2max. Increases in body mass with this kind of resistance training are not an issue.
Many high-level endurance athletes will already include high-intensity intervals in their training leading up to and including the competitive phase. For these athletes adding more intervals is not necessarily a good strategy, but altering the mix to reduce the volume of lower intensity intervals and increase the volume of higher intensity intervals may be beneficial. Athletes who do not currently include sport-specific explosive resistance training are almost certain to experience substantial gains in performance by adding this form of training to their programs.
A partially selective effect of the different kinds of training on physiological measures raises the possibility of prescribing training to correct weaknesses in these measures. On the basis of the existing research one can tentatively recommend adding or increasing explosive resistance training for an athlete with a poor economy and/or poor anaerobic capacity, and adding or increasing maximal intervals for an athlete with a poor VO2max.
Further Research
We need more research aimed at filling voids in the matrix of different kinds of training vs effects on performance and physiology. In particular:
We need to know more about the effects of non-specific resistance training (especially plyometrics and usual weights) on performance and some aspects of physiology.
The effects of supramaximal intervals on anaerobic threshold and economy need more research.
The one study on physiological effects of submaximal intervals needs augmenting with studies that include performance measures.
High-intensity sport-specific resistance training of the non-explosive variety has not been investigated other than in the one study that was performed in the competitive phase.
This new research will give us a more complete understanding of how each type of high-intensity training in isolation affects endurance performance. More importantly, it will give us a better indication of the possibility of prescribing training to correct deficits in an athlete's physiological profile. Well-designed studies of individualized training prescription will further address this issue.
From the perspective of the athlete and coach, the most important question is how best to combine the various kinds of high-intensity training before and during the competitive phase of the season. There is currently only one study of high-intensity training of athletes in the competitive phase. We need more, and we need studies of periodization of high-intensity training in the phases leading to competition.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Effects of high-intensity training on measures of endurance performance in competitive athletes. Performance is expressed as change in mean power in a sport-specific time trial or its equivalent. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect within each of the intensities/durations of endurance test.Performance testChange in power (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceSubmaximal Tests1-h 40-km cycling12.4?b Max intervals (short recovery)12 sessions over 6-7 wk8 M cyclistsWestgarth-Taylor et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Westgarth-Taylor19971030103Westgarth-Taylor, C.Hawley, J.A.Rickard, S.Myburgh, K.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.D.1997Metabolic and performance adaptations to interval training in endurance-trained cyclistsEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology75298-304Cyclingtraining endurance(1997)1-h 40-km cycling~8.3Max intervals (short recovery)6 sessions over 4 wk8 M cyclistsLindsay et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Lindsay199699099Lindsay, F.H.Hawley, J.A.Myburgh, K,H.Helgo, S.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.C.1996Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training.msse28111427-1434Interval trainingPerformancecyclists(1996)1-h 40-km cycling4.6 at 2 wk;6.6 at 4 wkcMax intervals (short recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)1-h 40-km cycling3.2 at 2 wk;6.2 at 4 wkcMax intervals (long recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)1-h 40-km cycling2.7 at 2 wk;5.3 at 4 wkcSupramax intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling at ventilatory threshold4.7Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 2 wk7+7 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(2002a)1-h 40-km cycling~4.6Max intervals (short recovery)6 sessions over 4 wk6 M cyclistsWeston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Weston19971020102Weston, A.R.Myburgh, K.H.Lindsay, F.H.Dennis, S.C.Noakes, T.D.Hawley, J.A.1997Skeletal muscle buffering capacity and endurance performance after high-intensity interval training by well-trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied Physiology757-13cyclingtrainingendurance(1997)18-min 5-km running0.3 at 6 wk;4.0 at 9 wkExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)1-h 40-km cycling3.4Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk7 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)1-h 40-km cycling3.0Max intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk12 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)10-km running3.0Max intervals 3 wk-1 for 8 wk7 M runnersAcevedo and Goldfarb ADDIN EN.CITE Acevedo19891070107Acevedo, E.O.Goldfarb, A.H.1989Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold and endurancemsse215563-568Trainingrunnersendurance(1989)1-h cycling1.0 at 4 wk;2.9 at 9 wkExplosive weights9 wk6+8 M cyclistsBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)Cycling at Dmax lactate2.6Usual weights 2 wk-1 for 12 wk14+7 F cyclists Bishop et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(1999)20-min running to exhaustion~1.2hMax intervals 3 wk-1 for 8 wk7 M runnersAcevedo and Goldfarb ADDIN EN.CITE Acevedo19891070107Acevedo, E.O.Goldfarb, A.H.1989Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold and endurancemsse215563-568Trainingrunnersendurance(1989)1-h cycling0.6 at 6 wk;-1.8 at 12 wkUsual weights2 wk-1 for 12 wk14+7 F cyclists Bishop et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(1999)Performance testChange in power (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceMaximal Tests5-min skiing to exhaustion~5.2dExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk10+9 M cross-country skiersOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)5-min skiing to exhaustion~5.1eExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk8+7 F cross-country skiers Hoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff1999808Hoff, J.Helgerud, J.Wisloff, U.1999Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31870-7http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.99305260(1999)10-min 3-km running2.8%Max intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk5 M runnersSmith et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Smith19991010101Smith, T.P.McNaughton, L.R.Marshall, K,J.1999Effects of 4-wk training using Vmax/Tmax on VO2max and performance in athletesMSSE316892-896TrainingAthletes(1999)7-min skiing to exhaustion~1.9gExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)10-min 3-km running1.2Plyometrics2-3 wk-1 for 6 wk8+9 M runnersSpurrs et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Spurrs200383083Spurrs, R.W.Murphy, A.J.Watsford, M.L.2003The effect of plyometric training on distance running performanceEur J Appl Physiol891-7PLyometricsrunning(2003)For footnotes see HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Appendix 5.
Appendix 1 continued: Effects of high-intensity training on measures of endurance performance in competitive athletes. Performance is expressed as change in mean power in a sport-specific time trial or its equivalent. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect.Performance testChange in power (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceSupramaximal Tests30-s cycling10 at 4 wk;11 at 9 wkExplosive weights9 wk6+8 M cyclistsBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)45-s cycling4.6Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk7 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)30-s cycling3.0Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk10+7 M cyclistsCreer et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Creer2004606Creer, A RRicard, M DConlee, R KHoyt, G LParcell, A C2004Neural, metabolic, and performance adaptations to four weeks of high intensity sprint-interval training in trained cyclistsIJSM2592-98(2004)30-s to 2-min 50- to 200-m swimming~3.0f Sport-specific resistance3 wk-1 for 10 wk11+11 M & F swimmersToussaint and Vervoorn ADDIN EN.CITE Toussaint19901000100Toussaint, H.M.Vervoorn, K.1990Effects of high resistance training in the water on competitive swimmersInt J Sports Med11228-233trainingcompetitiveendurance(1990)45-s cycling0.4Max intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk12 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)For footnotes see HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Appendix 5.
Appendix 2: Effects of high-intensity training on maximum power in an incremental test in competitive athletes. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect.Performance testChange in power (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceCycling2.1 at 2 wk;7.0 at 4 wkMax intervals (short recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Running sprints0.8 at 3 wk;3.5 at 6 wk;6.0 at 9 wkExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Cycling3.1 at 2 wk;5.8 at 4 wkMax intervals (long recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling5.3Max intervals (short recovery)6 sessions over 4 wk8 M cyclistsLindsay et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Lindsay199699099Lindsay, F.H.Hawley, J.A.Myburgh, K,H.Helgo, S.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.C.1996Improved athletic performance in highly trained cyclists after interval training.msse28111427-1434Interval trainingPerformancecyclists(1996)Cycling5.0Max intervals (short recovery)12 sessions over 6-7 wk8 M cyclistsWestgarth-Taylor et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Westgarth-Taylor19971030103Westgarth-Taylor, C.Hawley, J.A.Rickard, S.Myburgh, K.H.Noakes, T.D.Dennis, S.D.1997Metabolic and performance adaptations to interval training in endurance-trained cyclistsEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology75298-304Cyclingtraining endurance(1997)Running speed at VO2max4.8Max intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk5 M runnersSmith et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Smith19991010101Smith, T.P.McNaughton, L.R.Marshall, K,J.1999Effects of 4-wk training using Vmax/Tmax on VO2max and performance in athletesMSSE316892-896TrainingAthletes(1999)Cycling4.7Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 2 wk7+7 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(2002a)Cycling0.7 at 2 wk;4.0 at 4 wkSupramax intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling3.5Max intervals (short recovery)6 sessions over 28 d6 M cyclistsWeston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Weston19971020102Weston, A.R.Myburgh, K.H.Lindsay, F.H.Dennis, S.C.Noakes, T.D.Hawley, J.A.1997Skeletal muscle buffering capacity and endurance performance after high-intensity interval training by well-trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied Physiology757-13cyclingtrainingendurance(1997)Running speed at VO2max2.9Submax and max intervals 2 wk-1 for 4 wk8 M runnersBillat et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Billat19991060106Billat, V.L.Flechet, B.Petit, B.Muriaux, G.Koralsztein, JP.1999Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markersMSSE311156-163Trainingrunnersendurance(1999)Cycling2.5Max intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk12 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)Running0.9 at 3 wk;0.9 at 6 wk;2.3 at 9 wkExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Cycling2.1 at 4 wk;2.0 at 9 wkExplosive weights9 wk6+8 M cyclistsBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)Cycling1.0Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk7 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)Running speed at VO2max0.0Usual weights2 wk-1 for 14 wk7+8 M triathletesMillet et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Millet20021210121Millet, G PJaouen, BBorrani, FCandau, R2002Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO2 kineticsMSSE341351-1359(2002)For footnotes see HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Appendix 5.
Appendix 3: Effects of high-intensity training on maximum oxygen consumption in competitive athletes. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect.Performance testChange in VO2max (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceCycling2.6 at 2 wk;7.1 at 4 wkMax intervals (short recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Running4.9Max intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk5 M runnersSmith et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Smith19991010101Smith, T.P.McNaughton, L.R.Marshall, K,J.1999Effects of 4-wk training using Vmax/Tmax on VO2max and performance in athletesMSSE316892-896TrainingAthletes(1999)Cycling2.0 at 2 wk;4.4 at 4 wkMax intervals (long recovery)2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Cycling3.5Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 2 wk7+7 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200215015Laursen, P.B.Blanchard, M.A.Jenkins, D.G.2002Acute high-intensity interval training improves Tvent and peak power output in highly trained males.Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology27336-48(2002a)Cycling2.3Max intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk12 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)Cycling0.8 at 2 wk;2.2 at 4 wkSupramax intervals2 wk-1 for 4 wk8+11 M cyclistsLaursen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Laursen200216016Laursen, P.B.Shing, C.M.Peake, J.M.Coombes, J.S.Jenkins, D.G.2002Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise341801-7(2002b)Running2.2Submax intervals1 wk-1 for 14 wk8 M runnersSjodin et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(1982)Running2.1Submax and max intervals 2 wk-1 for 4 wk8 M runnersBillat et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Billat19991060106Billat, V.L.Flechet, B.Petit, B.Muriaux, G.Koralsztein, JP.1999Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markersMSSE311156-163Trainingrunnersendurance(1999)Skiing2.0Explosive sport-specific movements6 wk7+8 M cross-country skiersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199120020Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Rusko, H.1991Effects of explosive type strength training on physical performance characteristics in cross-country skiers.Eur J Appl Physiol62251-5(1991)Skiing3.4 to -3.9jExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk8+7 F cross-country skiers Hoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff1999808Hoff, J.Helgerud, J.Wisloff, U.1999Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31870-7http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.99305260(1999)Skiing 1.4kExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Running0.7Max intervals 3 wk-1 for 8 wk7 M runnersAcevedo and Goldfarb ADDIN EN.CITE Acevedo19891070107Acevedo, E.O.Goldfarb, A.H.1989Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold and endurancemsse215563-568Trainingrunnersendurance(1989)Running-0.3Usual weights3 wk-1 for 10 wk6+6 F runners Johnston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Johnston199713013Johnston, R EQuinn, T JKertzer, RVroman, N B1997Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economyJSCR11224-229(1997)Running-0.4Plyometrics3 wk-1 for 6 wk10+8 F+M subelite runnersTurner et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Turner200382082Turner, A.M.Owimngs, M.Schwane, J.A.2003Improvements in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric trainingJSCR17160-67economyrunningplyometrics(2003)Cycling-0.6Supramax intervals2 wk-1 for 3 wk7 M cyclistsStepto et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Stepto199923023Stepto, N. K.Hawley, J. A.Dennis, S. C.Hopkins, W. G.1999Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performanceMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31736-741specificity, train, cycle(1999)Running -2.3kExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Cycling-2.4Usual weights2 wk-1 for 12 wk14+7 F cyclists Bishop et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(1999)Running -3.0Plyometrics2-3 wk-1 for 6 wk8+9 M runnersSpurrs et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Spurrs200383083Spurrs, R.W.Murphy, A.J.Watsford, M.L.2003The effect of plyometric training on distance running performanceEur J Appl Physiol891-7PLyometricsrunning(2003)Running-3.2Usual weights2 wk-1 for 14 wk7+8 M triathletesMillet et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Millet20021210121Millet, G PJaouen, BBorrani, FCandau, R2002Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO2 kineticsMSSE341351-1359(2002)Running0.0 at 3 wk;-3.4 at 6 wk;-4.2 at 9 wklExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Skiing-4.7Explosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk10+9 M cross-country skiersOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)For footnotes see HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Appendix 5.
Appendix 4: Effects of high-intensity training on anaerobic threshold (on oxygen consumption as percent of VO2max) and on exercise economy. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect within each measure.Performance testChange in measure (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceAnaerobic thresholdSkiing VO2 at 1.8 mM lactate above baseline7.1mExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk10+9 M cross-country skiersOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)Running VO2 at increase of lactate6.8mExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Running VO2 at 2.5 & 4 mM 5.3 & 4.9Max intervals3 wk-1 for 8 wk7 M runnersAcevedo and Goldfarb ADDIN EN.CITE Acevedo19891070107Acevedo, E.O.Goldfarb, A.H.1989Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold and endurancemsse215563-568Trainingrunnersendurance(1989)Skiing VO2 at 1.8 mM lactate above baseline5.0mExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Running VO2 at 4mM lactate 1.5Submax intervals1 wk-1 for 14 wk8 M runnersSjodin et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(1982)Running VO2 at ventilatory threshold0.2Usual weights2 wk-1 for 14 wk7+8 M triathletesMillet et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Millet20021210121Millet, G PJaouen, BBorrani, FCandau, R2002Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO2 kineticsMSSE341351-1359(2002)Skiing VO2 at ~2 and ~4 mM lactate -2.0mExplosive sport-specific movements6 wk7+8 M cross-country skiersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199120020Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Rusko, H.1991Effects of explosive type strength training on physical performance characteristics in cross-country skiers.Eur J Appl Physiol62251-5(1991)Running VO2 at 1.8 mM lactate above baseline-2.1mExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Performance testChange in measure (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReferenceEconomynSkiing at VO2max39?oExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk8+7 F cross-country skiers Hoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff1999808Hoff, J.Helgerud, J.Wisloff, U.1999Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31870-7http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.99305260(1999)Skiing at 10.9 km.h-118Explosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Running at 75% VO2max15?pUsual weights2 wk-1 for 14 wk7+8 M triathletesMillet et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Millet20021210121Millet, G PJaouen, BBorrani, FCandau, R2002Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and VO2 kineticsMSSE341351-1359(2002)Skiing at anaerobic threshold13Explosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk10+9 M cross-country skiersOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)Running at 15 km.h-17.8 at 3 wk;7.0 at 6 wk;8.6 at 9 wkqExplosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)Running at 12, 14 and 16 km.h-17.6, 6.2 and 4.9Plyometrics2-3-1 wk for 6 wk8+9 M runnersSpurrs et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Spurrs200383083Spurrs, R.W.Murphy, A.J.Watsford, M.L.2003The effect of plyometric training on distance running performanceEur J Appl Physiol891-7PLyometricsrunning(2003)Running at 14 km.h-16.5Submax and max intervals 2 wk-1 for 4 wk8 M runnersBillat et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Billat19991060106Billat, V.L.Flechet, B.Petit, B.Muriaux, G.Koralsztein, JP.1999Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markersMSSE311156-163Trainingrunnersendurance(1999)Cycling at 50-70% VO2max4.1 at 4 wk;3.5 at 9 wkExplosive weights9 wk6+8 M cyclistsBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)Running at 15 km.h-12.8Submax intervals1 wk-1 for 14 wk8 M runnersSjodin et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Sjodin19821050105Sjodin, B.Jacobs, I.Svendenhag, J.1982Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after trainingEuropean Journal of Applied Physiology4945-57trainingendurancerunners(1982)Running (mean at various speeds)3.1Plyometrics3 wk-1 for 6 wk10+8 F+M runnersTurner et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Turner200382082Turner, A.M.Owimngs, M.Schwane, J.A.2003Improvements in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric trainingJSCR17160-67economyrunningplyometrics(2003)Running at 12.8 and 13.8 km.h-11.7 and 1.2Usual weights3 wk-1 for 10 wk6+6 F runners Johnston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Johnston199713013Johnston, R EQuinn, T JKertzer, RVroman, N B1997Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economyJSCR11224-229(1997)For footnotes see HYPERLINK \l "footnotes" Appendix 5.
Appendix 5: Effects of high-intensity training on body mass in competitive athletes. Studies ordered approximately by magnitude of effect.Performance testChange in mass (%)Experimental trainingDuration of trainingSubjectsaReference-2.8Usual weights3 wk-1 for 10 wk6+6 F runners Johnston et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Johnston199713013Johnston, R EQuinn, T JKertzer, RVroman, N B1997Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economyJSCR11224-229(1997)-1.7Explosive sport-specific movements9 wk12+10 M elite runnersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199921021Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Hamalainen, I.Nummela, A.Rusko, H.1999Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.Journal of Applied Physiology861527-33(1999)-~1.5rExplosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk10+9 M cross-country skiersOsteras et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Osteras200219019Osteras, H.Helgerud, J.Hoff, J.2002Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany88255-6322345581http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.22345581(2002)-1.3sExplosive weights9 wk6+8 M cyclistsBastiaans et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bastiaans2001202Bastiaans, J.J.van_Diemen, A.B.Veneberg, T.Jeukendrup, A.E.2001The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists.European Journal of Applied PhysiologyGermany8679-84Eur J Appl Physiol21678048(2001)-0.8Explosive sport-specific movements6 wk7+8 M cross-country skiersPaavolainen et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Paavolainen199120020Paavolainen, L.Hakkinen, K.Rusko, H.1991Effects of explosive type strength training on physical performance characteristics in cross-country skiers.Eur J Appl Physiol62251-5(1991)-0.8Usual weights2 wk-1 for 12 wk14+7 F cyclists Bishop et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Bishop1999404Bishop, D.Jenkins, D. G.Mackinnon, L. T.McEniery, M.Carey, M. F.1999The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristicsMedicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31886-891specificity, endurance, strength, cycle(1999)-0.6Explosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 9 wk8+7 F cross-country skiers Hoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff1999808Hoff, J.Helgerud, J.Wisloff, U.1999Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise31870-7http://journals.bmn.com/medline/search/record?uid=MDLN.99305260(1999)-0.3Plyometrics2-3 wk-1 for 6 wk8+9 M runnersSpurrs et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Spurrs200383083Spurrs, R.W.Murphy, A.J.Watsford, M.L.2003The effect of plyometric training on distance running performanceEur J Appl Physiol891-7PLyometricsrunning(2003)-0.2Explosive sport-specific movements3 wk-1 for 8 wk9+10 M cross-country skiersHoff et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hoff2002909Hoff, J.Gran, A.Helgerud, J.2002Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance.Scand J Med Sci Sports12288-95(2002)Supramax, supraximal; max, maximal; submax, submaximal; M, male; F, female; VO2, oxygen consumption.
aNumbers are experimental + control.
bThe value of 12% in the paper appears to be an unrealistic increase (should probably be ~5.3%).
cThese changes in performance time on the Cateye ergometer need to be inflated by an unknown factor (perhaps 1.5x) to convert them to changes in mean power.
dEstimated from 51% increase in time to exhaustion using methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001).
eEstimated from 50% increase in time to exhaustion using methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001).
f Estimated from a 0.8- 1.1% decrease in swim time using methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001).
gEstimated from 26% increase in time to exhaustion using methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001).
hEstimated from 17% increase in time to exhaustion using methods of Hopkins et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hopkins200111011Hopkins, W GSchabort, E JHawley, J A2001Reliability of power in physical performance testsSM31211-234tests, rely(2001).
i Changes based on VO2 in L.min-1.
j Wide inconsistency between VO2 in L.min-1, ml.min-1.kg-1 and ml.min-1.kg-0.67 probably due to ~3% increase in body mass in resistance group.
kEstimated from VO2 in ml.min-1.kg-1 by adding 0.2% change in body mass.
l Estimated from VO2 in ml.min-1.kg-1. Value at 9 wk corrected by adding the 1.7% change in body mass. Values at 3 and 6 wk not corrected because change in body mass unknown.
mEstimated by combining percent changes in mean VO2 and mean VO2max.
nExpressed as percent change in work output per liter of oxygen consumed
oThe value of 39% in the paper is unrealistic.
pThe increase in economy of 15% is not consistent with an associated increase in heart rate and no change in speed at VO2max; standard deviation of economy consistent with outlier or faulty portable gas analyzer.
qEstimated from VO2 expressed as ml.min-1.kg-1. Value at 9 wk corrected by subtracting the 1.7% change in body mass. Values at 3 and 6 wk not corrected because change in body mass unknown.
rEstimated by combining data for VO2 in L.min-1 and ml.min-1.kg-1.
sChange in lean body mass.Published Nov 2004HYPERLINK "../../copyright.html"©2004
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